# Timeline of the far future

> Source: [Timeline of the far future](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future)
> Clipped: 2026-07-06

Timeline of the far future

Scientific projections regarding the far future

[![A dark gray and red sphere representing the Earth lies against a black background to the right of an orange circular object representing the Sun](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Red_Giant_Earth_warm.jpg/500px-Red_Giant_Earth_warm.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Giant_Earth_warm.jpg)

Artist's concept of the [Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth "Earth") 5–7.5 billion years from now, when the [Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun "Sun") has become a [red giant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_giant "Red giant")

While the [future](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future "Future") cannot be [predicted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predict "Predict") with certainty, present understanding in various scientific fields allows for the prediction of some far-future events, if only in the broadest outline.[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-NYT-20230502-1)[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-2)[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-3)[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-4) These fields include [astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics "Astrophysics"), which studies how [planets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet "Planet") and [stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star "Star") form, interact and die; [particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics"), which has revealed how matter behaves at the smallest scales; [evolutionary biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology "Evolutionary biology"), which studies how life evolves over time; [plate tectonics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics"), which shows how continents shift over millennia; and [sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology "Sociology"), which examines how human societies and cultures evolve.

These timelines begin at the start of the 4th millennium in 3001 CE, and continue until the furthest and most remote reaches of future time. They include alternative future events that address unresolved scientific questions, such as whether [humans will become extinct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction "Human extinction"), whether the Earth survives when the Sun expands to become a [red giant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_giant "Red giant") and whether [proton decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay "Proton decay") will be the eventual end of all matter in the universe.

## Earth, the Solar System, and the universe

See also: [Formation and evolution of the Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System "Formation and evolution of the Solar System") and [List of future astronomical events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_future_astronomical_events "List of future astronomical events")

All projections of the [future of Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Earth "Future of Earth"), [the Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_the_Solar_System "Future of the Solar System") and [the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe "Future of an expanding universe") must account for the [second law of thermodynamics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics "Second law of thermodynamics"), which states that [entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"), or a loss of the energy available to do work, must rise over time.[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Nave-5) Stars will eventually exhaust their supply of [hydrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") fuel via fusion and burn out. The Sun will likely expand sufficiently to overwhelm most of the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, and possibly Earth) but not the giant planets, including Jupiter and Saturn. Afterwards, the Sun will be reduced to the size of a [white dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf "White dwarf"), and the outer planets and their moons will continue to orbit this diminutive solar remnant. This future situation may be similar to the white dwarf star [MOA-2010-BLG-477L](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOA-2010-BLG-477L "MOA-2010-BLG-477L") and the Jupiter-sized [exoplanet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanet "Exoplanet") orbiting it.[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-NAT-20211013-6)[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-KO-20211013-7)[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-NYT-20211013-8)

Long after the death of the Solar System, physicists expect that matter itself will eventually disintegrate under the influence of [radioactive decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay "Radioactive decay"), as even the most stable materials break apart into subatomic particles.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) Current data suggest that the [universe has a flat geometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe#Universe_with_zero_curvature "Shape of the universe") (or very close to flat) and will therefore not [collapse in on itself](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch "Big Crunch") after a finite time.[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Komatsu-10) This infinite future could allow for the occurrence of massively improbable events, such as the formation of [Boltzmann brains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_brain "Boltzmann brain") or spontaneous inflation triggering a new Big Bang.[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-linde-11)[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-carroll_and_chen-12)

**Keys**

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Five_Pointed_Star_Solid.svg "Astronomy and astrophysics") | [Astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy") and [astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics "Astrophysics") |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noun_project_528.svg "Geology and planetary science") | [Geology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology "Geology") and [planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science "Planetary science") |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butterfly_icon_(Noun_Project).svg "Biology") | [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology "Biology") |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Psi_(greek_letter).svg "Particle physics") | [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics") |
| [Technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simpleicons_Interface_user-male-black-silhouette.svg "Technology and culture") | [Technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology "Technology") and [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture "Culture") |

|  | Years from now | Event |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1,000 | Due to the [lunar tides decelerating the Earth's rotation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration "Tidal acceleration"), the average length of a [solar day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_day "Solar day") will be 1⁄30 of an [SI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI "SI") second longer than it is today. To compensate, either a leap second will have to be added to the end of a day multiple times during each month, or one or more consecutive leap seconds will have to be added at the end of some or all months.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-arxiv1106_3141-13) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 2,000 | As Earth's poles [precess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precess "Precess"), [Gamma Cephei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Cephei "Gamma Cephei") replaces [Polaris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris "Polaris") as the northern [pole star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star "Pole star").[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-14) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 1,000 – 10,000 | As one of the [long-term effects of global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_global_warming "Long-term effects of global warming"), the [Greenland ice sheet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet "Greenland ice sheet") will have completely melted.[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-15) The melt rate will depend on the amount of carbon emissions in the air.[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-16) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 10,000 | If a failure of the [Wilkes Subglacial Basin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkes_Subglacial_Basin "Wilkes Subglacial Basin") "ice plug" in the next few centuries were to endanger the [East Antarctic Ice Sheet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet "East Antarctic Ice Sheet"), it would take up to this long to melt completely. [Sea levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level "Sea level") would rise 3 to 4 metres.[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-17) One of the potential [long-term effects of global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_global_warming "Long-term effects of global warming"), this is separate from the shorter-term threat to the [West Antarctic Ice Sheet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet "West Antarctic Ice Sheet"). |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 10,000 | If humans were extinct, Earth would be midway through a stable warm period with the next [glacial period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_period "Glacial period") of the [Quaternary glaciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation "Quaternary glaciation") due in 10,000 years, but if humans survived and did impact their planet, the greenhouse gas emissions would disrupt this natural cycle.[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-18) According to research, the [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") released from burning fossil fuels could cause the planet to skip [glacial periods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_period "Glacial period") repeatedly for at least the next 500,000 years.[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-19) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 10,000 – 1 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | The [red supergiant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_supergiant "Red supergiant") stars [Betelgeuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse "Betelgeuse") and [Antares](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antares "Antares") will likely have exploded as [supernovae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova "Supernova"). For a few months, the explosions should be easily visible on Earth in daylight.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-hockey-21)[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-22)[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-betel-23)[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-24)[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Neuhäuser_et_al_2022-25) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 11,700 | As Earth's poles precess, [Vega](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega "Vega"), the [fifth-brightest star in the sky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars "List of brightest stars"), becomes the northern [pole star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star "Pole star").[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-26) Although Earth cycles through many different [naked-eye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked-eye "Naked-eye") northern pole stars, Vega is the brightest. |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 11,000–15,000 | By this point, halfway through Earth's [precessional cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession "Axial precession"), Earth's [axial tilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt "Axial tilt") will be mirrored, causing [summer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer "Summer") and [winter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter "Winter") to occur on opposite sides of Earth's orbit. This means that the seasons in the [Southern Hemisphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere") will be less extreme than they are today, as it will face away from the Sun at Earth's [perihelion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perihelion "Perihelion") and towards the Sun at [aphelion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphelion "Aphelion"); the seasons in the [Northern Hemisphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere "Northern Hemisphere") will be more extreme, as it experiences more pronounced seasonal variation because of a higher percentage of land.[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-plait-27) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 15,000 | The [oscillating tilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt#Long_term "Axial tilt") of Earth's poles will have moved the [North African Monsoon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_Monsoon "North African Monsoon") far enough north to change the climate of the [Sahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara "Sahara") back into a tropical one [such as it had 5,000–10,000 years ago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_humid_period "African humid period").[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-tropicalsahara1-28)[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-tropicalsahara2-29) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 17,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | The best-guess recurrence rate for a "civilization-threatening" [supervolcanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcanic "Supervolcanic") eruption large enough to eject one teratonne (one trillion tonnes) of [pyroclastic material](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_material "Pyroclastic material").[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-30)[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-31) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 25,000 | The [northern polar ice cap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps "Martian polar ice caps") of [Mars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars "Mars") could recede as the planet reaches a warming peak of its northern hemisphere during the c. 50,000-year [perihelion precession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perihelion_precession "Perihelion precession") aspect of its [Milankovitch cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycle "Milankovitch cycle").[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-32)[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-33) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 36,000 | The small [red dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_dwarf "Red dwarf") [Ross 248](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_248 "Ross 248") will pass within 3.024 light-years of Earth, becoming the closest star to the Sun.[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Matthews1993-34) It will recede after about 8,000 years, making first [Alpha Centauri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Centauri "Alpha Centauri") (again) and then [Gliese 445](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_445 "Gliese 445") the nearest stars[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Matthews1993-34) ([see timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs#Distant_future_and_past_encounters "List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs")). |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 50,000 | According to Berger and Loutre, the current [interglacial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interglacial "Interglacial") period will end,[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Berger2002-35) sending the Earth back into a [glacial period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_period "Glacial period") of the [Quaternary glaciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation "Quaternary glaciation"), regardless of the effects of anthropogenic [global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming "Global warming"). However, according to more recent studies in 2016, anthropogenic climate change, if left unchecked, may delay this otherwise expected glacial period by as much as an additional 50,000 years, potentially skipping it entirely.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-36) [Niagara Falls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls "Niagara Falls") will have eroded the remaining 32 km to [Lake Erie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie") and will therefore cease to exist.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Niagara_Parks-37)  The many [glacial lakes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_lake "Glacial lake") of the [Canadian Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield "Canadian Shield") will have been erased by [post-glacial rebound](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound "Post-glacial rebound") and erosion.[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-38) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 50,000 | Due to lunar tides decelerating the Earth's rotation, a day on Earth is expected to be one [SI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI "SI") second longer than it is today. To compensate, either a [leap second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second "Leap second") will have to be added to the end of every day, or the length of the day will have to be officially lengthened by one SI second.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-arxiv1106_3141-13) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 60,000 | It is possible that the current cooling trend might be interrupted by an [interstadial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstadial "Interstadial") phase (a warmer period), with the next [glacial maximum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_maximum "Glacial maximum") of the [Quaternary glaciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation "Quaternary glaciation") reached only in about 100 kyr AP.[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-auto-39) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100,000 | The [proper motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_motion "Proper motion") of stars across the [celestial sphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere "Celestial sphere"), which results from their movement through the [Milky Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way "Milky Way"), renders many of the [constellations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation "Constellation") unrecognizable.[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Tapping_2005-40) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | The [red hypergiant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_hypergiant "Red hypergiant") star [VY Canis Majoris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VY_Canis_Majoris "VY Canis Majoris") will likely have exploded in a [supernova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova "Supernova").[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Monnier_Tuthill_Lopez_1999-41) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 100,000 | Native North American [earthworms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm "Earthworm"), such as [Megascolecidae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megascolecidae "Megascolecidae"), will have naturally spread north through the United States [Upper Midwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Midwest "Upper Midwest") to the [Canada–United States border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada–United_States_border "Canada–United States border"), recovering from the [Laurentide ice sheet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurentide_ice_sheet "Laurentide ice sheet") glaciation (38°N to 49°N), assuming a migration rate of 10 metres per year, and that a possible renewed glaciation by this time has not prevented this.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-42) (However, humans have already introduced non-native [invasive earthworms of North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_earthworms_of_North_America "Invasive earthworms of North America") on a much shorter timescale, causing a shock to the regional [ecosystem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem "Ecosystem").) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100,000 – 10 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | [Cupid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupid_(moon) "Cupid (moon)") and [Belinda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belinda_(moon) "Belinda (moon)"), moons of [Uranus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus "Uranus"), will likely have collided.[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-43) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noun_project_528.svg "Geology and planetary science") | 100,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Earth will likely have undergone a [supervolcanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcanic "Supervolcanic") eruption large enough to erupt 400 km3 (96 cubic miles) of [magma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma "Magma").[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-44) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 100,000 | According to Berger and Loutre, the next [glacial maximum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_maximum "Glacial maximum") of the [Quaternary glaciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation "Quaternary glaciation") is expected to be the most intense, regardless of the effects of [anthropogenic global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_global_warming "Anthropogenic global warming").[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-auto-39) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | > 100,000 | As one of the [long-term effects of global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_global_warming "Long-term effects of global warming"), ten percent of [anthropogenic carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas") will still remain in a stabilized atmosphere.[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-45) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 250,000 | [Kamaʻehuakanaloa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamaʻehuakanaloa_Seamount "Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount") (formerly Lōʻihi), the youngest volcano in the [Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain "Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain"), will rise above the surface of the ocean and become a new [volcanic island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_island "Volcanic island").[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-havo-46) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | c. 300,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | At some point in the next few hundred thousand years, the [Wolf–Rayet star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf–Rayet_star "Wolf–Rayet star") [WR 104](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WR_104 "WR 104") may explode in a [supernova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova "Supernova"). There is a small chance that WR 104 is spinning fast enough to produce a [gamma-ray burst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst "Gamma-ray burst") (GRB), and an even smaller chance that such a GRB could pose a threat to life on Earth.[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-47)[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-48) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 500,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid of roughly 1 km in diameter, [assuming that it is not averted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance "Asteroid impact avoidance").[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Bostrom_2002-49) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 500,000 | The rugged terrain of [Badlands National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badlands_National_Park "Badlands National Park") in [South Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dakota "South Dakota") will have eroded completely.[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-50) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 600,000[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | The estimated time for the third [super-eruption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_eruption "Volcanic eruption") of the [Toba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Toba "Lake Toba") [supervolcano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano "Supervolcano") by this date. The first super-eruption occurred around 840,000 years ago, after 1.4 million years of magma input, whereas magma fed the second super-eruption at 75,000 years.[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-51)[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-52) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 1 million | [Meteor Crater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_Crater "Meteor Crater"), a large [impact crater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater "Impact crater") in [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona "Arizona") considered the "freshest" of its kind, will have worn away.[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-53) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | [Desdemona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desdemona_(moon) "Desdemona (moon)") and [Cressida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cressida_(moon) "Cressida (moon)"), moons of [Uranus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus "Uranus"), will likely have collided.[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Uranus-54) The [stellar system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_system "Stellar system") [Eta Carinae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Carinae "Eta Carinae") will likely have exploded in a [supernova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova "Supernova").[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-55) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noun_project_528.svg "Geology and planetary science") | 1 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Earth will likely have undergone a [supervolcanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano "Supervolcano") eruption large enough to erupt 3,200 km3 (770 cubic miles) of magma, an event comparable to the [Toba supereruption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory "Toba catastrophe theory") 75,000 years ago.[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-56) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.29 ± 0.04 million | The star [Gliese 710](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_710 "Gliese 710") will pass as close as 0.051 [parsecs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec "Parsec") (0.1663 [light-years](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-year "Light-year"); 10,520 [astronomical units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit "Astronomical unit"))[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-57) to the Sun before moving away. This will gravitationally [perturb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy) "Perturbation (astronomy)") members of the [Oort cloud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud "Oort cloud"), a halo of icy bodies orbiting at the edge of the Solar System, thereafter raising the likelihood of a cometary impact in the inner Solar System.[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-gliese-58) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 2 million | The estimated time for the full recovery of [coral reef](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef "Coral reef") ecosystems from human-caused [ocean acidification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification "Ocean acidification") if such acidification goes unchecked; the recovery of marine ecosystems after the acidification event that occurred about 65 million years ago took a similar length of time.[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-59) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 2 million+ | The [Grand Canyon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canyon "Grand Canyon") will erode further, deepening slightly, but principally widening into a broad valley surrounding the [Colorado River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_River "Colorado River").[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-60) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 2.7 million | The average orbital half-life of current [centaurs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) "Centaur (small Solar System body)"), which are unstable because of gravitational interactions with the several [outer planets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_planets "Outer planets").[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Horner2004a-61) See [predictions for notable centaurs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body)#Notable_centaurs "Centaur (small Solar System body)"). |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 3 million | Due to tidal deceleration gradually slowing Earth's rotation, a day on Earth is expected to be one minute longer than it is today. To compensate, either a ["leap minute"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second "Leap second") will have to be added to the end of every day, or the length of the day will have to be officially lengthened by one SI minute.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-arxiv1106_3141-13) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 6 million | Estimated time for comet [C/1999 F1 (Catalina)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/1999_F1_(Catalina) "C/1999 F1 (Catalina)"), one of the longest-period comets known to return to the inner Solar System, after having travelled in its orbit out to its aphelion 66,600 AU (1.053 light-years) from the Sun and back.[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-62) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 10 million | The [Red Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") will flood the widening [East African Rift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Rift "East African Rift") valley, causing a new ocean basin to divide the continent of [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa "Africa")[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-rift-63) and the [African plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_plate "African plate") into the newly formed Nubian plate and the [Somali plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_plate "Somali plate"). The [Indian plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_plate "Indian plate") will advance into [Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau "Tibetan Plateau") by 180 km (110 mi). [Nepali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") territory, whose boundaries are defined by the [Himalayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas "Himalayas") peaks and the plains of [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India "India"), will cease to exist.[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-64) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 10 million | The estimated time for the full recovery of [biodiversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity "Biodiversity") after a potential [Holocene extinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction "Holocene extinction"), if it were on the scale of the five previous major [extinction events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event "Extinction event").[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-65) Even without a mass extinction, by this time most current species will have disappeared through the [background extinction rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_extinction_rate "Background extinction rate"), with many [clades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade "Clade") gradually evolving into new forms.[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-66)[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-67) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 15 million | An estimated 694 stars will have approached the Solar System to less than 5 [parsecs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec "Parsec"). Of these, 26 have a good probability to come within 1.0 parsec (3.3 light-years) and 7 within 0.5 parsecs (1.6 light-years).[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-68) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 20 million | The [Strait of Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar "Strait of Gibraltar") will have closed due to [subduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction "Subduction") and a [Ring of Fire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_of_Fire "Ring of Fire") will form in the [Atlantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic "Atlantic"), similar to that in the [Pacific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific "Pacific").[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-69)[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-70) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 30 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid of roughly 5 km in diameter, [assuming that it is not averted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance "Asteroid impact avoidance").[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-71) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 50 million | The maximum estimated time before the moon [Phobos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) "Phobos (moon)") collides with [Mars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars "Mars").[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Bills-72) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 50 million | According to [Christopher Scotese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Scotese "Christopher Scotese"), the movement of the [San Andreas Fault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault "San Andreas Fault") will cause the [Gulf of California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_California "Gulf of California") to flood into the California [Central Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Valley_(California) "Central Valley (California)"). This will form a new inland sea on the [West Coast of North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States "West Coast of the United States"), causing the current locations of Los Angeles and San Francisco in California to merge.[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-scotese-73)[*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*] The Californian coast will begin to be subducted into the [Aleutian Trench](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Trench "Aleutian Trench").[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-trench-74) Africa's collision with [Eurasia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia "Eurasia") will close the [Mediterranean basin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_basin "Mediterranean basin") and create a mountain range similar to the [Himalayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas "Himalayas").[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-medi-75)  The [Appalachian Mountains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains "Appalachian Mountains") peaks will have largely worn away,[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-76) weathering at 5.7 [Bubnoff units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubnoff_unit "Bubnoff unit"), although topography will actually rise as regional [valleys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley "Valley") deepen at twice this rate.[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-77) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 50–60 million | The [Canadian Rockies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Rockies "Canadian Rockies") will have worn away to a plain, assuming a rate of 60 [Bubnoff units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubnoff_unit "Bubnoff unit").[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-78) The [Southern Rockies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Rockies "Southern Rockies") in the United States are eroding at a somewhat slower rate.[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-79) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 50–400 million | The estimated time for Earth to naturally replenish its [fossil fuel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel "Fossil fuel") reserves.[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-80) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 80 million | The [Big Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_(island) "Hawaii (island)") will have become the last of the current [Hawaiian Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands") to sink beneath the surface of the ocean, while a more recently formed chain of "new Hawaiian Islands" will then have emerged in their place.[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-81) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid comparable in size to the one that triggered the [K–Pg extinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K–Pg_extinction "K–Pg extinction") 66 million years ago, [assuming this is not averted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance "Asteroid impact avoidance").[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-kpg1-82) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 100 million | According to the [Pangaea Proxima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima "Pangaea Proxima") model created by Christopher R. Scotese, a new subduction zone will open in the Atlantic Ocean, and the Americas will begin to converge back toward Africa.[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-scotese-73)[*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*] Upper estimate for the lifespan of [Saturn's rings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn's_rings "Saturn's rings") in their current state.[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-83) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 110 million | The Sun's luminosity will have increased by one percent.[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-84) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 125 million | According to the [Pangaea Proxima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima "Pangaea Proxima") model created by Christopher R. Scotese, the [Atlantic Ocean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") is predicted to stop widening and begin to shrink as the [Mid-Atlantic Ridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge "Mid-Atlantic Ridge") [seafloor spreading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading "Seafloor spreading") gives way to subduction. In this scenario, the [mid-ocean ridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge "Mid-ocean ridge") between [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America "South America") and [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa "Africa") will probably be subducted first; the Atlantic Ocean is predicted to narrow as a result of subduction beneath the Americas. The Indian Ocean is also predicted to be smaller due to northward subduction of oceanic crust into the Central Indian trench. [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica "Antarctica") is expected to split in two and shift northwards, colliding with [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") and Australia, enclosing a remnant of the Indian Ocean, which Scotese calls the "Medi-Pangaean Sea".[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-85)[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-86) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 180 million | Due to the gradual slowing of Earth's rotation, a day on Earth will be one hour longer than it is today. To compensate, either a ["leap hour"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second "Leap second") will have to be added to the end of every day, or the length of the day will have to be officially lengthened by one SI hour.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-arxiv1106_3141-13) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 230 million | Prediction of the orbits of the Solar System's planets is impossible over timespans greater than this, due to the limitations of [Lyapunov time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyapunov_time "Lyapunov time").[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-hayes07-87) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 240 million | From its present position, the [Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System "Solar System") completes [one full orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year "Galactic year") of the [Galactic Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_Center "Galactic Center").[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-galyear-88) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 250 million | According to Christopher R. Scotese, due to the northward movement of the West Coast of North America, the coast of [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California "California") will collide with [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska "Alaska").[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-scotese-73)[*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*] |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 250–350 million | All the continents on Earth may fuse into a [supercontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent "Supercontinent").[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-scotese-73)[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Williams_Nield_2007-89) Four potential arrangements of this configuration have been dubbed [Amasia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amasia_(continent) "Amasia (continent)"), [Novopangaea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novopangaea "Novopangaea"), [Pangaea Proxima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima "Pangaea Proxima") and [Aurica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurica_(supercontinent) "Aurica (supercontinent)"). This will likely result in a [glacial period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_period "Glacial period"), lowering sea levels and increasing oxygen levels, further lowering global temperatures.[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-90)[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-PerryRussel1997-91) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | > 250 million | The supercontinent's formation, thanks to a combination of continentality increasing distance from the ocean, an increase in volcanic activity resulting in atmospheric CO2 at double current levels, increased interspecific competition, and a 2.5 percent increase in [solar flux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flux "Solar flux"), is likely to trigger an extinction event comparable to the [Great Dying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Dying "Great Dying") 250 million years ago. [Mammals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal "Mammal") in particular are unlikely to survive, assuming they still exist in their current forms by this point.[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-92)[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 300 million | Due to a shift in the equatorial [Hadley cells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadley_cell "Hadley cell") to roughly 40° north and south, the amount of arid land will increase by 25%.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 300–600 million | The estimated time for [Venus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus "Venus")'s mantle temperature to reach its maximum. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, major subduction occurs and the crust is recycled.[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Strom1994-94) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 350 million | According to the extroversion model first developed by [Paul F. Hoffman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_F._Hoffman "Paul F. Hoffman"), subduction ceases in the [Pacific Ocean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") basin.[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Williams_Nield_2007-89)[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-95) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 400–500 million | The supercontinent (Pangaea Proxima, Novopangaea, Amasia, or Aurica) will likely have rifted apart.[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Williams_Nield_2007-89) This will likely result in higher global temperatures, similar to the [Cretaceous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous "Cretaceous") period.[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-PerryRussel1997-91) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 500 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | The estimated time until a [gamma-ray burst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst "Gamma-ray burst"), or massive, hyperenergetic supernova, occurs within 6,500 light-years of Earth; close enough for its rays to affect Earth's [ozone layer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer") and potentially trigger a [mass extinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_extinction "Mass extinction"), assuming the hypothesis is correct that a previous such explosion triggered the [Ordovician–Silurian extinction event](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician–Silurian_extinction_event "Ordovician–Silurian extinction event"). However, the supernova would have to be precisely oriented relative to Earth to have such effect.[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-natgeo-96) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 600 million | [Tidal acceleration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration "Tidal acceleration") moves the [Moon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon "Moon") far enough from Earth that [total solar eclipses are no longer possible](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse#Final_totality "Solar eclipse").[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-600mil-97) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 500–600 million | The Sun's increasing luminosity begins to disrupt the [carbonate–silicate cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate–silicate_cycle "Carbonate–silicate cycle"); higher luminosity increases [weathering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering "Weathering") of surface rocks, which traps [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") in the ground as carbonate. As water evaporates from the Earth's surface, rocks harden, causing [plate tectonics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics") to slow and eventually stop once the oceans evaporate completely. With less volcanism to recycle carbon into the Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide levels begin to fall.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98) By this time, carbon dioxide levels will fall to the point at which [C3 photosynthesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation "C3 carbon fixation") is no longer possible. All plants that use C3 photosynthesis (roughly 99 percent of present-day species) will die.[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Heath_Doyle_2009-99) The extinction of C3 plant life is likely to be a long-term decline rather than a sharp drop. It is likely that plant groups will die one by one well before the critical carbon dioxide level is reached. The first plants to disappear will be C3 [herbaceous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous "Herbaceous") plants, followed by [deciduous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deciduous "Deciduous") forests, [evergreen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evergreen "Evergreen") broad-leaf forests, and finally evergreen [conifers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer "Conifer").[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) However, a 2024 paper by RJ Graham et al. argues that silicate weathering is far less temperature-dependent than initially thought, and that falling carbon dioxide levels are unlikely to lead to the death of life on Earth.[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-graham2024-100) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 500–800 million | As Earth begins to warm and carbon dioxide levels fall, [plants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant "Plant")—and, by extension, animals—could survive longer by evolving other strategies such as requiring less carbon dioxide for photosynthetic processes, becoming [carnivorous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivorous_plant "Carnivorous plant"), adapting to [desiccation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccation "Desiccation"), or [associating with fungi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy "Myco-heterotrophy"). These adaptations are likely to appear near the beginning of the moist greenhouse.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) The decrease in plant life will result in less [oxygen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen") in the [atmosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere "Atmosphere"), allowing for more [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA")-damaging [ultraviolet radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation "Ultraviolet radiation") to reach the surface. The rising temperatures will increase chemical reactions in the atmosphere, further lowering oxygen levels. Plant and animal communities become increasingly sparse and isolated as the Earth becomes more barren. Flying animals would be better off because of their ability to travel large distances looking for cooler temperatures.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-WardBrownlee2003-101) Many animals may be driven to the poles or possibly underground. These creatures would become active during the [polar night](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night "Polar night") and [aestivate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivate "Aestivate") during the [polar day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_day "Polar day") due to the intense heat and radiation. Much of the land would become a barren desert, and plants and animals would primarily be found in the oceans.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-WardBrownlee2003-101) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 500–800 million | As pointed out by [Peter Ward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ward_(paleontologist) "Peter Ward (paleontologist)") and [Donald Brownlee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Brownlee "Donald Brownlee") in their book *[The Life and Death of Planet Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Life_and_Death_of_Planet_Earth "The Life and Death of Planet Earth")*, according to [NASA Ames](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Ames "NASA Ames") scientist Kevin Zahnle, this is the earliest time for plate tectonics to eventually stop, due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's core, which could potentially turn the Earth back into a [water world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_world "Ocean world"). This would, in turn, likely cause the extinction of Earth's remaining land life.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-WardBrownlee2003-101) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 800–900 million | Carbon dioxide levels will fall to the point at which [C4 photosynthesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation "C4 carbon fixation") is no longer possible.[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Heath_Doyle_2009-99) Without plant life to recycle oxygen in the atmosphere, free oxygen and the ozone layer will disappear from the atmosphere allowing for intense levels of deadly UV light to reach the surface. Animals in food chains that were dependent on live plants will disappear shortly afterward.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) At most, animal life could survive about 3 to 100 million years after plant life dies out. Extinction will start with large animals, then smaller animals and flying creatures, then amphibians, followed by reptiles and, finally, invertebrates.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98) In the book *The Life and Death of Planet Earth*, authors [Peter D. Ward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ward_(paleontologist) "Peter Ward (paleontologist)") and [Donald Brownlee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_E._Brownlee "Donald E. Brownlee") state that some animal life may be able to survive in the oceans. Eventually, however, all multicellular life will die out.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bd2_6_1665-102) The first sea animals to go extinct will be large fish, followed by small fish and then, finally, invertebrates.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98) The last animals to go extinct will be animals that do not depend on living plants, such as [termites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termite "Termite"), or those near [hydrothermal vents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent "Hydrothermal vent"), such as [worms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worm "Worm") of the genus *[Riftia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riftia "Riftia")*.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong2-93) The only life left on the Earth after this will be [single-celled organisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-celled_organisms "Single-celled organisms"). |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 1 billion[[b]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-shortscale-103) | 27% of the ocean's mass will have been [subducted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subducted "Subducted") into the mantle. If this were to continue uninterrupted, it would reach an equilibrium where 65% of present-day surface water would be subducted.[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-hess5_4_569-104) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1 billion | By this point, the [Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Spheroidal_Galaxy "Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy") will have been completely consumed by the [Milky Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way "Milky Way").[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Nature-105) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 1.1 billion | The Sun's luminosity will have increased by 10%, causing Earth's surface temperatures to reach an average of around 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F). The atmosphere will become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98)[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mnras386_1-106) This would cause [plate tectonics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics") to stop completely, if not already stopped before this time.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownlee201095-107) Pockets of water may still be present at the poles, allowing abodes for simple life.[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownlee2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM8NwTYEl0ngCpgPA79_79]-108)[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-pressure-109) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 1.2 billion | High estimate until all plant life dies out, assuming some form of photosynthesis is possible despite extremely low carbon dioxide levels. If this is possible, rising temperatures will make any animal life unsustainable from this point on.[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-nature-110)[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-tellus_b_52_1-111)[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-grl28_9-112) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 1.3 billion | [Eukaryotic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic "Eukaryotic") life dies out on Earth due to carbon dioxide starvation. Only [prokaryotes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote "Prokaryote") remain.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bd2_6_1665-102) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.5 billion | [Callisto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) "Callisto (moon)") is captured into the [mean-motion resonance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-motion_resonance "Mean-motion resonance") of the other [Galilean moons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moon "Galilean moon") of [Jupiter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter "Jupiter"), completing the 1:2:4:8 chain. (Currently only [Io](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Io_(moon) "Io (moon)"), [Europa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(moon) "Europa (moon)") and [Ganymede](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganymede_(moon) "Ganymede (moon)") participate in the 1:2:4 resonance.)[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-113) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.5–1.6 billion | The Sun's rising luminosity causes its [circumstellar habitable zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone "Circumstellar habitable zone") to move outwards; as [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") rises in [Mars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars "Mars")'s atmosphere, its surface temperature increases to levels akin to Earth during the [ice age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age "Ice age").[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bd2_6_1665-102)[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mars-114) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.5–4.5 billion | Tidal acceleration moves the Moon far enough from the Earth to the point where it can no longer stabilize Earth's [axial tilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt "Axial tilt"). As a consequence, Earth's [true polar wander](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_polar_wander "True polar wander") becomes chaotic and extreme, leading to dramatic shifts in the planet's climate due to the changing axial tilt.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-wander-115) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 1.6 billion | Lower estimate until all remaining life, which by now had been reduced to colonies of unicellular organisms in isolated microenvironments such as high-altitude lakes and caves, goes extinct.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98)[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bd2_6_1665-102)[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams200833–47-116) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 1.66–1.86 billion | Estimated time until plant life goes extinct if silicate weathering does not increase fast enough to deplete atmospheric carbon dioxide below the minimum for C4 photosynthesis, and biosphere decline is instead driven by overheating past the upper limit of 338 K (65 °C; 149 °F) documented for a symbiont of *[Dichanthelium lanuginosum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichanthelium_lanuginosum "Dichanthelium lanuginosum")*. If this happens, then the disappearance of other multicellular life on land will happen around the same time.[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-graham2024-100) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | < 2 billion | The first close passage of the [Andromeda Galaxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy "Andromeda Galaxy") and the [Milky Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way "Milky Way").[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-cox-117) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 2 billion | High estimate until the Earth's oceans evaporate if the atmospheric pressure were to decrease via the [nitrogen cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle "Nitrogen cycle").[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-pnas106_24-118) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 2.55 billion | The Sun will have reached a maximum surface temperature of 5,820 K (5,550 °C; 10,020 °F). From then on, it will become gradually cooler while its luminosity will continue to increase.[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mnras386_1-106) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 2.8 billion | Earth's surface temperature will reach around 420 K (147 °C; 296 °F), even at the poles.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98)[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams200833–47-116) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 2.8 billion | High estimate until all remaining Earth life goes extinct.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-swansong-98)[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams200833–47-116) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 3–4 billion | The [Earth's core freezes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Earth#Solidification_of_the_outer_core "Future of Earth") if the inner core continues to grow in size, based on its current growth rate of 1 mm (0.039 in) in diameter per year.[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-ng4_264-119)[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-compo-120)[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-meadows_2007-121) Without its liquid outer core, Earth's [magnetosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere "Magnetosphere") shuts down,[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-magnet-122) and solar winds gradually deplete the atmosphere.[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-123) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | c. 3 billion[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | There is a roughly 1-in-100,000 chance that the Earth will be ejected into interstellar space by a stellar encounter before this point, and a 1-in-300-billion chance that it will be both ejected into space and captured by another star around this point. If this were to happen, any remaining life on Earth could potentially survive for far longer if it survived the interstellar journey.[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams200833–44-124) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 3.5–4.5 billion | The Sun's luminosity will have increased by 35–40%, causing all water currently present in lakes and oceans to evaporate, if it had not done so earlier. The [greenhouse effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect "Greenhouse effect") caused by the massive, water-rich atmosphere will result in Earth's surface temperature rising to 1,400 K (1,130 °C; 2,060 °F), which is hot enough to melt some surface rock.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownlee201095-107)[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-pnas106_24-118)[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-guinan_ribas-125)[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-icarus74-126) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 4.32 billion | Due to the gradual slowing of Earth's rotation, a day on Earth will be twice as long as it is today. To compensate, either a ["leap day"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second "Leap second") will have to be added to the end of every day, or the length of the day will have to be officially lengthened by one day.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-arxiv1106_3141-13) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 4.5 billion | Mars reaches the same [solar flux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flux "Solar flux") as that of the Earth when it first formed 4.5 billion years ago from today.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mars-114) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 5 billion[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | There is a roughly one percent chance that [Jupiter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter "Jupiter")'s gravity may make [Mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) "Mercury (planet)")'s orbit so [eccentric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity "Orbital eccentricity") as to cross [Venus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus "Venus")'s orbit by this time, sending the inner Solar System into chaos.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-127) Other possible scenarios include Mercury colliding with the Sun, being ejected from the Solar System, or colliding with Venus or Earth.[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-chaos-128)[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-129) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 5.4 billion | The Sun, having now exhausted its hydrogen supply, leaves the [main sequence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence "Main sequence") and begins [evolving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution "Stellar evolution") into a [red giant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_giant "Red giant").[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Schroder_2008-130) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 6.5 billion | Mars reaches the same solar radiation flux as Earth today, after which it will suffer a similar fate to the Earth as described above.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mars-114) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 6.6 billion | The Sun may experience a [helium flash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_flash "Helium flash"), resulting in its core becoming as bright as the combined luminosity of all the stars in the Milky Way galaxy.[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-131) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 7.5 billion | Earth and Mars may become [tidally locked](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidally_locked "Tidally locked") with the expanding red giant Sun.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-mars-114) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 7.59 billion | The Earth and Moon are possibly destroyed by falling into the Sun, just before the Sun reaches the top of its [red giant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_giant "Red giant") phase.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Schroder_2008-130)[[c]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-earthredgiantsun-133) Before the final collision, the Moon possibly spirals below Earth's [Roche limit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_limit "Roche limit"), breaking into a ring of debris, most of which falls to the Earth's surface.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-powell2007-134) However, this outcome still remains uncertain as the Sun's total mass loss is ambiguous and a newer study published in 2026 has suggested that the Earth is likely to survive the engulfment.[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Esseldeurs_et_al_2026-135) During this era, the Solar System's habitable zone will expand to have a range of 49.4 AU to 71.4 AU, reaching well into the Kuiper Belt.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Schroder_2008-130) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 7.9 billion | The Sun reaches the top of the red-giant branch of the [Hertzsprung–Russell diagram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung–Russell_diagram "Hertzsprung–Russell diagram"), achieving its maximum radius of 256 times the present-day value.[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Rybicki2001-132) In the process, [Mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) "Mercury (planet)"), [Venus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus "Venus") and Earth are likely destroyed.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Schroder_2008-130) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 8 billion | The Sun becomes a carbon–oxygen [white dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf "White dwarf") with about 54.05% of its present mass.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Schroder_2008-130)[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-nebula-136)[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-apj676_1_594-137)[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dwarf_group_note-138) At this point, if the Earth survives, temperatures on the surface of the planet, as well as the other planets in the Solar System, will begin dropping rapidly, due to the white dwarf Sun emitting much less energy than it does today. |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 10 billion | The Andromeda Galaxy will have a 50% probability of having [collided](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda–Milky_Way_collision "Andromeda–Milky Way collision") with the Milky Way, forming an elliptical galaxy dubbed "Milkomeda".[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-sawala-139) If the collision has occurred, there is also a small chance of the Solar System being ejected.[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-cox-117)[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Cain-140) The planets of the Solar System will almost certainly not be disturbed by these events.[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-141)[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-142)[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-milk-143) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | >22.3 billion | 22.3 billion years is the estimated time until the end of the universe in a [Big Rip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Rip "Big Rip"), assuming a model of [dark energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy "Dark energy") with [w = −1.5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_state_(cosmology) "Equation of state (cosmology)").[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bigrip-144)[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-145) If the density of dark energy is less than −1, then the [universe's expansion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe's_expansion "Universe's expansion") will continue to accelerate and the [observable universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe "Observable universe") will grow ever sparser. Around 200 million years before the Big Rip, galaxy clusters like the [Local Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Group "Local Group") or the [Sculptor Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_Group "Sculptor Group") will be destroyed; 60 million years before the Big Rip, all galaxies will begin to lose [stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star "Star") around their edges and will completely disintegrate in another 40 million years; three months before the Big Rip, star systems will become gravitationally unbound, and planets will fly off into the rapidly expanding universe; thirty minutes before the Big Rip, [planets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet "Planet"), stars, [asteroids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid "Asteroid") and even extreme objects like [neutron stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star "Neutron star") and [black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole") will evaporate into [atoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom "Atom"); one hundred [zeptoseconds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeptosecond "Zeptosecond") (10−19 seconds) before the Big Rip, atoms will break apart. Ultimately, once the Rip reaches the [Planck scale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_scale "Planck scale"), cosmic strings would be disintegrated as well as the fabric of [spacetime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime "Spacetime") itself. The universe would enter into a "rip singularity" when all non-zero distances become infinitely large. Whereas a "crunch singularity" involves all matter being infinitely concentrated, in a "rip singularity", all matter is infinitely spread out.[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-146) Observations of [galaxy cluster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_cluster "Galaxy cluster") speeds by the [Chandra X-ray Observatory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory "Chandra X-ray Observatory") suggest that the value of w is c. −0.991, meaning the Big Rip is unlikely to occur.[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-chand-147) Meanwhile, more recent data (2018) from the Planck mission indicates the value of w to be c. −1.028 (±0.031), pushing the earliest possible time of the Big Rip to approximately 200 billion years into the future.[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-plank-148) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 28 billion | [Neptune](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune "Neptune")'s moon [Triton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(moon) "Triton (moon)") falls through the planet's [Roche limit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_limit "Roche limit"), disintegrating into a planetary [ring system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_system "Ring system") similar to [Saturn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn "Rings of Saturn")'s.[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Wang2025-149) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 50 billion | If the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun, by this time they will become [tidally locked](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidally_locked "Tidally locked"), with each showing only one face to the other.[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-tide1-150)[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-tide2-151) Thereafter, the tidal action of the white dwarf Sun will extract [angular momentum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum "Angular momentum") from the system, causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth's spin to accelerate.[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-canup_righter-152) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 65 billion | The Moon may collide with the Earth or be torn apart to form an orbital ring due to the decay of its orbit, assuming the Earth and Moon have not already been destroyed.[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-153) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100 billion – 1 trillion | All the ≈47 galaxies[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-messier-154) of the [Local Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Group "Local Group") will coalesce into a single large galaxy—an expanded ["Milkomeda"/"Milkdromeda"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda–Milky_Way_collision "Andromeda–Milky Way collision"); the last galaxies of the Local Group coalescing will mark the effective completion of its evolution.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100–150 billion | The [universe's expansion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe's_expansion "Universe's expansion") causes all galaxies beyond the former [Local Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Group "Local Group") to disappear beyond the [cosmic light horizon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_light_horizon "Cosmic light horizon"), removing them from the [observable universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe "Observable universe").[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-galaxy-155)[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Ord-156) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 150 billion | The universe will have expanded by a factor of 6,000, and the [cosmic microwave background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background "Cosmic microwave background") will have cooled by the same factor to around 4.5×10−4 K. The temperature of the background will continue to cool in proportion to the expansion of the universe.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Ord-156) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 325 billion | The estimated time by which the expansion of the universe will have isolated all gravitationally bound structures within their own cosmological horizon. At this point, the universe will have expanded by a factor of more than 100 million from today, and even individual exiled stars will be isolated.[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-:0-157) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 800 billion | The expected time when the net light emission from the combined "Milkomeda" galaxy begins to decline as the [red dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_dwarf "Red dwarf") stars pass through their [blue dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_dwarf_(red-dwarf_stage) "Blue dwarf (red-dwarf stage)") stage of peak luminosity.[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bluedwarf-158) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1 trillion | A low estimate for the time until [star formation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_formation "Star formation") ends in galaxies as galaxies are depleted of the [gas clouds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_cloud "Gas cloud") they need to form stars.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) The universe's expansion, assuming a constant dark energy density, multiplies the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background by 1029, exceeding the scale of the [cosmic light horizon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_light_horizon "Cosmic light horizon") and rendering its evidence of the [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") undetectable. However, it may still be possible to determine the expansion of the universe through the study of [hypervelocity stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervelocity_star "Hypervelocity star").[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-galaxy-155) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.05 trillion | The estimated time by which the universe will have expanded by a factor of more than 1026, reducing the average particle density to less than one particle per [cosmological horizon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_horizon "Cosmological horizon") volume. Beyond this point, particles of unbound intergalactic matter are effectively isolated, and collisions between them cease to affect the future evolution of the universe.[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-:0-157) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.4 trillion | The estimated time by which the cosmic background radiation cools to a floor temperature of 10−30 K and does not decline further. This residual temperature comes from [horizon radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unruh_effect#Unruh_radiation "Unruh effect"), which does not decline over time.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Ord-156) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 2 trillion | The estimated time by which all objects beyond our former Local Group are [redshifted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift "Redshift") by a factor of more than 1053. Even [gamma rays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray "Gamma ray") that they emit are stretched so that their wavelengths are greater than the physical diameter of the horizon. The resolution time for such radiation will exceed the physical age of the universe.[[156]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-159) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 4 trillion | The estimated time until the red dwarf star [Proxima Centauri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxima_Centauri "Proxima Centauri"), the closest star to the Sun today, at a distance of 4.25 [light-years](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-year "Light-year"), leaves the main sequence and becomes a white dwarf.[[157]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-160) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 10 trillion | The estimated time of peak habitability in the universe, unless habitability around low-mass stars is suppressed.[[158]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-loeb_2016-161) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 12 trillion | The estimated time until the red dwarf star [VB 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VB_10 "VB 10")—as of 2016, the least-massive [main-sequence star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main-sequence_star "Main-sequence star") with an estimated mass of 0.075 M☉—runs out of hydrogen in its core and becomes a white dwarf.[[159]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-S&T_22-162)[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-163) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 30 trillion | The estimated time for stars (including the Sun) to undergo a close encounter with another star in local stellar neighborhoods. Whenever two stars (or [stellar remnants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_remnants "Stellar remnants")) pass close to each other, their planets' orbits can be disrupted, potentially ejecting them from the system entirely. On average, the closer a planet's orbit to its parent star the longer it takes to be ejected in this manner, because it is gravitationally more tightly bound to the star.[[161]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-strip-164) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 100 trillion | A high estimate for the time by which normal [star formation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_formation "Star formation") ends in galaxies.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) This marks the transition from the [Stelliferous Era to the Degenerate Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe#Degenerate_Era "Future of an expanding universe"); with too little free hydrogen to form new stars, all remaining stars slowly exhaust their fuel and die.[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_ages-165) By this time, the universe will have expanded by a factor of approximately 102554.[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-:0-157) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 110–120 trillion | The time by which all stars in the universe will have exhausted their fuel (the longest-lived stars, low-mass [red dwarfs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_dwarf "Red dwarf"), have lifespans of roughly 10–20 trillion years).[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) After this point, the stellar-mass objects remaining are stellar remnants ([white dwarfs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf "White dwarf"), [neutron stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star "Neutron star"), [black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_black_hole "Stellar black hole")) and [brown dwarfs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dwarf "Brown dwarf"). Collisions between brown dwarfs will create new red dwarfs on a marginal level: on average, about 100 stars will shine in what was once "Milkomeda". Collisions between stellar remnants will create occasional supernovae.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1015 (1 quadrillion) | The estimated time until stellar close encounters detach all planets in star systems (including the Solar System) from their orbits.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) By this point, the [black dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_dwarf "Black dwarf") that was once the Sun will have cooled to 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F).[[163]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_degs-166) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1019 to 1020 (10–100 quintillion) | The estimated time until 90–99% of brown dwarfs and stellar remnants (including the Sun) are ejected from galaxies. When two objects pass close enough to each other, they exchange orbital energy, with lower-mass objects tending to gain energy. Through repeated encounters, the lower-mass objects can gain enough energy in this manner to be ejected from their galaxy. This process eventually causes "Milkomeda"/"Milkdromeda" to eject the majority of its brown dwarfs and stellar remnants.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9)[[164]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_ages_pp85–87-167) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1020 (100 quintillion) | The estimated time until the Earth collides with the [black dwarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_dwarf "Black dwarf") Sun due to the decay of its orbit via emission of [gravitational radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_radiation "Gravitational radiation"),[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) if the Earth is not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter or engulfed by the Sun during its red giant phase.[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1023 (100 sextillion) | Around this timescale, most stellar remnants and other objects are ejected from the remains of their galactic cluster.[[166]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-169) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1030 (1 nonillion) | The estimated time until most or all of the remaining 1–10% of stellar remnants not ejected from galaxies fall into their galaxies' central [supermassive black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole "Supermassive black hole"). By this point, with [binary stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_star "Binary star") having fallen into each other, and planets into their stars, via emission of gravitational radiation, only solitary objects (stellar remnants, brown dwarfs, ejected planetary-mass objects, black holes) will remain in the universe.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 2×1036 (2 undecillion) | The estimated time for all [nucleons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon "Nucleon") in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized [proton half-life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_half-life "Proton half-life") takes its smallest possible value (8.2 × 1033 years).[[167]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-proton-170)[[d]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-half-life-172) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 1036–1038 (1–100 undecillion) | The estimated time for all remaining planets and stellar-mass objects, including the Sun, to disintegrate if [proton decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay "Proton decay") can occur.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 3×1043 (30 tredecillion) | The estimated time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized proton half-life takes the largest possible value of 1041 years,[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9) assuming that the Big Bang was [inflationary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation "Cosmic inflation") and that the same process that made baryons predominate over anti-baryons in the early universe makes protons decay. By this time, if protons do decay, the [Black Hole Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe#Black_Hole_Era "Future of an expanding universe"), in which black holes are the only remaining celestial objects, begins.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9)[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_ages-165) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 3.14×1050 (314 quindecillion) | The estimated time until a [micro black hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_black_hole "Micro black hole") of one [Earth mass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_mass "Earth mass") today will have decayed into [subatomic particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle "Subatomic particle") by the emission of [Hawking radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation "Hawking radiation").[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Page_1976-173) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 1065 (100 vigintillion) | Assuming that protons do not decay, the estimated time for rigid objects, from free-floating rocks in space to planets, to rearrange their [atoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom "Atom") and [molecules](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule "Molecule") via [quantum tunnelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling "Quantum tunnelling"). On this timescale, any discrete body of matter "behaves like a liquid" and becomes a smooth sphere due to diffusion and gravity.[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 1.16×1067 (11.6 unvigintillion) | The estimated time until a black hole of one [solar mass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass "Solar mass") today will have decayed by the emission of [Hawking radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation "Hawking radiation").[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Page_1976-173) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 1.54×1091–1.41×1092 (15.4–141 novemvigintillion) | The estimated time until the resulting [supermassive black hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole "Supermassive black hole") of "Milkomeda"/"Milkdromeda" from the merger of [Sagittarius A*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* "Sagittarius A*") and the [P2 concentration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy#Nucleus "Andromeda Galaxy") during the [collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda–Milky_Way_collision "Andromeda–Milky Way collision")[[170]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-174) will have vanished by the emission of [Hawking radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation "Hawking radiation"),[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Page_1976-173) assuming it does not accrete any additional matter nor merge with other black holes—though it is most likely that this supermassive black hole will nonetheless merge with other supermassive black holes during the gravitational collapse towards "Milkomeda"/"Milkdromeda" of other Local Group galaxies.[[171]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-175) This supermassive black hole might be the very last entity from the former Local Group to disappear—and the last evidence of its existence. |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10106 – 2.1×10109 | The estimated time until ultramassive black holes of 1014 (100 trillion) solar masses, predicted to form during the gravitational collapse of galaxy [superclusters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercluster "Supercluster"),[[172]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-176) decay by Hawking radiation.[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Page_1976-173) This marks the end of the Black Hole Era. Beyond this time, if protons do decay, the universe enters the [Dark Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Era "Dark Era"), in which all physical objects have decayed to [subatomic particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle "Subatomic particle"), gradually winding down to their final energy state in the [heat death of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe "Heat death of the universe").[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dying-9)[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_ages-165) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10161 | A 2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime before [collapse of a false vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_vacuum#Electroweak_vacuum_decay "False vacuum"); 95% confidence interval is 1065 to 101383 years due in part to uncertainty about the top quark's mass.[[173]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-177)[[e]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-178) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10200 | The highest estimate for the time it would take for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, provided they do not decay via the above process but instead through any one of many different mechanisms allowed in modern particle physics (higher-order [baryon non-conservation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon_number "Baryon number") processes, [virtual black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_black_hole "Virtual black hole"), [sphalerons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaleron "Sphaleron"), etc.) on timescales of 1046 to 10200 years.[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-five_ages-165) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 101100–32000 | The estimated time for black dwarfs of 1.2 solar masses or more to undergo supernovae as a result of slow [silicon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon "Silicon")–[nickel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel "Nickel")–[iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron "Iron") fusion, as the declining electron fraction lowers their [Chandrasekhar limit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit "Chandrasekhar limit"), assuming protons do not decay.[[174]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-179) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 101500 | Assuming that protons do not decay, the estimated time until all [baryonic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon "Baryon") matter in stellar remnants, planets and planetary-mass objects will have either fused together via [muon-catalyzed fusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion "Muon-catalyzed fusion") to form [iron-56](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-56 "Iron-56") or decayed from a higher mass element into iron-56 to form [iron stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_star "Iron star").[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10   10  26 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{26}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{26}}}[[f]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber-180)[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber2-181) | A low estimate for the time until all iron stars collapse via [quantum tunnelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling "Quantum tunnelling") into [black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole"), assuming no [proton decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay "Proton decay") or [virtual black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_black_hole "Virtual black hole"), and that Planck-scale black holes can exist.[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) On this vast timescale, even ultra-stable iron stars will have been destroyed by quantum-tunnelling events. At this lower end of the timescale, iron stars decay directly to black holes, as this decay mode is much more favorable than decaying into a neutron star (which has an expected timescale of      10   10  76 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{76}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{76}}} years)[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) and later decaying into a black hole. On these timescales, the subsequent evaporation of each resulting black hole into subatomic particles (a process lasting roughly [10100](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googol "Googol") years) and the subsequent shift to the [Dark Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Era "Dark Era") is instantaneous. |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10   10  50 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{50}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{50}}}[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20)[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber2-181)[[h]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-182) | The estimated time for a [Boltzmann brain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_brain "Boltzmann brain") to appear in the vacuum via a spontaneous [entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy "Entropy") decrease.[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-linde-11) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10   10  76 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{76}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{76}}}[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber2-181) | Highest estimate for the time until all iron stars collapse via quantum tunnelling into neutron stars or black holes, assuming no proton decay or virtual black holes, and that black holes below the Chandrasekhar mass cannot form directly.[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-dyson-168) On these timescales, neutron stars above the Chandrasekhar mass rapidly collapse into black holes, and black holes formed by these processes instantly evaporate into subatomic particles. This is also the highest estimated possible time for the Black Hole Era (and subsequent Dark Era) to commence. Beyond this point, it is almost certain that the universe will be an almost pure vacuum, gradually winding down its energy level until it reaches its [final energy state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe "Heat death of the universe"), assuming it does not happen before this time. |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10   10  120 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{120}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{120}}}[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber2-181) | The highest estimate for the time it takes for the universe to reach its final energy state.[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-linde-11) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10   10   10  56 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}}[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20)[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-bignumber2-181) | Around this vast timeframe, quantum tunnelling in any isolated patch of the universe could generate new [inflationary events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation "Cosmic inflation"), resulting in new Big Bangs giving birth to new universes.[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-carroll_and_chen-12) *(Because the total number of ways in which all the subatomic particles in the observable universe can be combined is      10   10  115 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{115}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{115}}},[[175]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-TegmarkPUstaple-183)[[176]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-184) a number which, when multiplied by      10   10   10  56 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}}, has a difference so small from      10   10   10  56 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}} {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}} that it is functionally zero, this is also the time required for a quantum-tunnelled and [quantum fluctuation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation "Quantum fluctuation")-generated Big Bang to produce a new universe identical to our own, assuming that every new universe contained at least the same number of subatomic particles and obeyed laws of physics within [the landscape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory_landscape "String theory landscape") predicted by [string theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory "String theory").)*[[177]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-185)[[178]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-186) |

## Humanity and human constructs

**Keys**

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Five_Pointed_Star_Solid.svg "Astronomy and astrophysics") | [Astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy") and [astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics "Astrophysics") |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noun_project_528.svg "Geology and planetary science") | [Geology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology "Geology") and [planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science "Planetary science") |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butterfly_icon_(Noun_Project).svg "Biology") | [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology "Biology") |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Psi_(greek_letter).svg "Particle physics") | [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics") |
| [Mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greek_lc_pi_icon.svg "Mathematics") | [Mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics") |
| [Technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simpleicons_Interface_user-male-black-silhouette.svg "Technology and culture") | [Technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology "Technology") and [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture "Culture") |

To date, five spacecraft (*[Voyager 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1 "Voyager 1")*, *[Voyager 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2 "Voyager 2")*, *[Pioneer 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10 "Pioneer 10")*, *[Pioneer 11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_11 "Pioneer 11")* and *[New Horizons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Horizons "New Horizons")*) are on [trajectories that will take them out of the Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System "List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System") and into [interstellar space](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_space "Interstellar space"). Barring an extremely unlikely collision with some object, all five should persist indefinitely.[[179]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-time-187)

|  | Date ([CE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era")) or years from now | Event |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 3183 CE | The *[Zeitpyramide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitpyramide "Zeitpyramide")* (*time pyramid*), a public art work started in 1993 at [Wemding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wemding "Wemding"), [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany"), is scheduled for completion.[[180]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Conception-188) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 4017 CE | Maximum lifespan of the data films in [Arctic World Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_World_Archive "Arctic World Archive"), a repository that contains code of [open-source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source "Open-source") projects on [GitHub](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub "GitHub") along with other data of historical interest (if stored in optimal conditions).[[181]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-189) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 5207 CE | According to [Michio Kaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michio_Kaku "Michio Kaku"), the time by which [humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") will be a [Type II civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_civilization "Type II civilization"), capable of harnessing all the energy of its [host star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun "Sun").[[182]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Kaku-2007-190) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 10,000 | The [Waste Isolation Pilot Plant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant "Waste Isolation Pilot Plant") for nuclear weapons waste is planned to be protected until this time, with a "Permanent Marker" system designed to warn off visitors through multiple languages (the six [UN languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_languages "UN languages") and [Navajo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_language "Navajo language")) and [pictograms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictogram "Pictogram").[[183]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-191) The [Human Interference Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Interference_Task_Force "Human Interference Task Force") has provided the theoretical basis for United States plans for future nuclear [semiotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics "Semiotics").[[184]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-192) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 10,000 | Planned lifespan of the [Long Now Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Now_Foundation "Long Now Foundation")'s several ongoing projects, including a 10,000-year clock known as the [Clock of the Long Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_of_the_Long_Now "Clock of the Long Now"), the [Rosetta Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Project "Rosetta Project") and the [Long Bet Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Bet_Project "Long Bet Project").[[185]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-longnow-193) Estimated lifespan of the [HD-Rosetta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD-Rosetta "HD-Rosetta") analog disc—an [ion beam-etched](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focused_ion_beam "Focused ion beam") writing medium on nickel plate, a technology developed at [Los Alamos National Laboratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory "Los Alamos National Laboratory") and later commercialized. (The Rosetta Project uses this technology, named after the [Rosetta Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone "Rosetta Stone").) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 10,000 | Projected lifespan of Norway's [Svalbard Global Seed Vault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault "Svalbard Global Seed Vault").[[186]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-194) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 10,000 | Most probable estimated lifespan of technological civilization, according to [Frank Drake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Drake "Frank Drake")'s original formulation of the [Drake equation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_equation "Drake equation").[[187]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-195) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 10,000 | If [globalization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization "Globalization") trends lead to [panmixia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panmixia "Panmixia"), [human genetic variation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genetic_variation "Human genetic variation") will no longer be regionalized, as the [effective population size](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_population_size "Effective population size") will equal the actual population size.[[188]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-196) |
| [Mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Mathematics") | 19,126 | Humanity has a 95% probability of extinction by this date, according to [Scientific American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American") in 2026.[[189]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-197) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 20,000 | The [Chernobyl exclusion zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_exclusion_zone "Chernobyl exclusion zone") is expected to become habitable again.[[190]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-198) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 24,110 | [Half-life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life "Half-life") of [plutonium-239](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-239 "Plutonium-239").[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-NUBASE2016-199) At this point the [Chernobyl Exclusion Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone "Chernobyl Exclusion Zone"), the 2,600-square-kilometre (1,000 sq mi) area of [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") and [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") left deserted by the 1986 [Chernobyl disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster "Chernobyl disaster"), will return to normal levels of radiation.[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-TimeDisaster-200) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 25,000 | The [Arecibo message](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_message "Arecibo message"), a collection of radio data transmitted on 16 November 1974, will reach the distance of its destination: the [globular cluster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globular_cluster "Globular cluster") [Messier 13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_13 "Messier 13").[[193]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-glob-201) This is the only [interstellar radio message](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_radio_message "Interstellar radio message") sent to such a distant region of the galaxy. There will be a 24-light-year shift in the cluster's position in the galaxy during the time taken for the message to reach it, but as the cluster is 168 light-years in diameter, the message will still reach its destination.[[194]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-202) Any reply will take at least another 25,000 years from the time of its transmission. |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 14 September 30828 CE | Maximum [system time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time "System time") for 64-bit [NTFS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS "NTFS")-based [Windows](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows "Windows") operating system.[[195]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-203) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 33,800 | *[Pioneer 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10 "Pioneer 10")* passes within 3.4 light-years of [Ross 248](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_248 "Ross 248").[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 42,200 | *[Voyager 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2 "Voyager 2")* passes within 1.7 light-years of Ross 248.[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 44,100 | *[Voyager 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1 "Voyager 1")* passes within 1.8 light-years of [Gliese 445](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_445 "Gliese 445").[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 46,600 | *[Pioneer 11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_11 "Pioneer 11")* passes within 1.9 light-years of Gliese 445.[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 50,000 | Estimated atmospheric lifetime of [tetrafluoromethane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrafluoromethane "Tetrafluoromethane"), the most durable [greenhouse gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas").[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-205) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 90,300 | *[Pioneer 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10 "Pioneer 10")* passes within 0.76 light-years of [HIP 117795](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIP_117795 "HIP 117795").[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 100,000+ | Time required to [terraform Mars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars "Terraforming of Mars") with an [oxygen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen")-rich breathable atmosphere, using only plants with solar efficiency comparable to the biosphere currently found on Earth.[[198]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-206) |
| [Technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 100,000–1 million | Estimated time by which [humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") will be a [Type III civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_III_civilization "Type III civilization"), and could colonize the Milky Way galaxy and become capable of [harnessing all the energy of the galaxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale "Kardashev scale"), assuming a velocity of 10% the [speed of light](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light "Speed of light").[[199]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-typeiii-207) |
| [Particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Particle physics") | 250,000 | The estimated minimum time at which the spent [plutonium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium "Plutonium") stored at New Mexico's [Waste Isolation Pilot Plant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant "Waste Isolation Pilot Plant") will cease to be radiologically lethal to humans.[[200]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-208) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 13 September 275760 CE | Maximum [system time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time "System time") for the [JavaScript](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript "JavaScript") programming language.[[201]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-209) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 492,300 | *[Voyager 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1 "Voyager 1")* passes within 1.3 light-years of [HD 28343](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_28343 "HD 28343").[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 1 million | Estimated lifespan of [Memory of Mankind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_of_Mankind "Memory of Mankind") (MOM) [self storage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_storage "Self storage")-style repository in [Hallstatt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstatt "Hallstatt") salt mine in Austria, which stores information on [inscribed tablets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet "Clay tablet") of [stoneware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoneware "Stoneware").[[202]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-210) Planned lifespan of the Human Document Project being developed at the [University of Twente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Twente "University of Twente") in the Netherlands.[[203]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-211) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 1 million | Current [glass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass "Glass") objects in the environment will be decomposed.[[204]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-212) [Various public monuments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Granite_sculptures "Category:Granite sculptures") composed of hard [granite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite "Granite") will have eroded by one metre, in a moderate climate and assuming a rate of 1 [Bubnoff unit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubnoff_unit "Bubnoff unit") (1 mm in 1,000 years, or ≈1 inch in 25,000 years).[[205]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-213)  Without maintenance, the [Great Pyramid of Giza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza "Great Pyramid of Giza") will have eroded to the point where it is unrecognizable.[[206]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-214)  On the [Moon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon "Moon"), [Neil Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong "Neil Armstrong")'s "one small step" [footprint](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footprint "Footprint") at [Tranquility Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranquility_Base "Tranquility Base") will erode by this time, along with those left by all [twelve Apollo moonwalkers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts#Apollo_astronauts_who_walked_on_the_Moon "List of Apollo astronauts"), due to the accumulated effects of [space weathering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_weathering "Space weathering").[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-meadows_2007-121)[[207]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-215) (Normal erosion processes active on Earth are not present on the Moon because of its [almost complete lack of atmosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_the_Moon "Atmosphere of the Moon").) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1.2 million | *[Pioneer 11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_11 "Pioneer 11")* comes within three light-years of [Delta Scuti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Scuti "Delta Scuti").[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 2 million | *[Pioneer 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10 "Pioneer 10")* passes near the bright star [Aldebaran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldebaran "Aldebaran").[[208]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Pioneer_Ames-216) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 2 million | Vertebrate species separated for this long will generally undergo [allopatric speciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopatric_speciation "Allopatric speciation").[[209]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-217) Evolutionary biologist [James W. Valentine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._Valentine "James W. Valentine") predicted that if humanity has been dispersed among genetically isolated [space colonies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_colonies "Space colonies") over this time, the galaxy will host an [evolutionary radiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation "Evolutionary radiation") of multiple human species with a "diversity of form and adaptation that would astound us".[[210]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-218) This would be a natural process of isolated populations, unrelated to potential deliberate [genetic enhancement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy "Gene therapy") technologies. |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 4 million | *[Pioneer 11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_11 "Pioneer 11")* passes near one of the stars in the constellation [Aquila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila_(constellation) "Aquila (constellation)").[[208]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Pioneer_Ames-216) |
| [Biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Biology") | 5–10 million | Due to gradual degeneration, the [Y chromosome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome "Y chromosome") will have disappeared.[[211]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-219)[[212]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-220) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 7.2 million | Without maintenance, [Mount Rushmore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Rushmore "Mount Rushmore") will have eroded to the point where it is unrecognizable.[[213]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-221) |
| [Mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Mathematics") | 8 million[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Humanity has a 95% probability of extinction by this date, according to [J. Richard Gott](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Richard_Gott "J. Richard Gott")'s formulation of the controversial [Doomsday argument](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_argument "Doomsday argument").[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-222) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 8 million | Most probable lifespan of the [Pioneer 10 plaques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_plaque "Pioneer plaque") before the etching is destroyed by poorly understood interstellar erosion processes.[[215]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-223) The *[LAGEOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAGEOS "LAGEOS")* satellites' orbits will decay, and they will re-enter Earth's atmosphere, carrying with them a message to any far future descendants of humanity and a map of the continents as they are expected to appear then.[[216]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lageos-224) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 100 million | Maximal estimated lifespan of technological civilization, according to [Frank Drake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Drake "Frank Drake")'s original formulation of the [Drake equation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_equation "Drake equation").[[217]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-225) |
| [Geology and planetary science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Geology and planetary science") | 100 million | Future archaeologists should be able to identify an "Urban [Stratum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum "Stratum")" of fossilized [great coastal cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port "Port"), mostly through the remains of underground infrastructure such as [building foundations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_foundation "Building foundation") and [utility tunnels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_tunnel "Utility tunnel").[[218]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-226) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Technology and culture") | 1 billion | Estimated lifespan of "[Nanoshuttle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_shuttle "Molecular shuttle") memory device" using an [iron nanoparticle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_nanoparticle "Iron nanoparticle") moved as a [molecular switch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_switch "Molecular switch") through a [carbon nanotube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube "Carbon nanotube"), a technology developed at the [University of California at Berkeley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley "University of California at Berkeley").[[219]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-227) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1 billion | Estimated lifespan of the two [Voyager Golden Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record "Voyager Golden Record") before the information stored on them is rendered unrecoverable.[[220]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-228) Estimated time for an [astroengineering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroengineering "Astroengineering") project to alter the [Earth's orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_orbit "Earth's orbit"), compensating for the Sun's increasing brightness and outward migration of the [habitable zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_zone "Habitable zone"), accomplished by repeated asteroid [gravity assists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist "Gravity assist").[[221]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-229)[[222]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-230) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 292277026596 CE (292 billion) | [Numeric overflow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeric_overflow "Numeric overflow") in system time for 64-bit [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix "Unix") systems.[[223]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-231) |
| [Astronomy and astrophysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "Astronomy and astrophysics") | 1020 (100 quintillion)[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-prob-20) | Estimated timescale for the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft to collide with a star (or stellar remnant).[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-lavender-204) |
| [technology and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#Keys "technology and culture") | 3×1019 – 3×1021 (30 quintillion to 3 sextillion) | Estimated lifespan of "[Superman memory crystal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman_memory_crystal "Superman memory crystal")" data storage using [femtosecond laser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtosecond_laser "Femtosecond laser")-etched [nanostructures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanostructure "Nanostructure") in glass, a technology developed at the [University of Southampton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southampton "University of Southampton"), at an ambient temperature of 30 °C (86 °F; 303 K).[[224]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-232)[[225]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-233) |

## See also

* ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/40px-Crab_Nebula.jpg)[Astronomy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Astronomy "Portal:Astronomy")
* [![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/40px-He1523a.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg)[Stars portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Stars "Portal:Stars")
* ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/40px-Earth-moon.jpg)[Outer space portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Outer_space "Portal:Outer space")
* [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/The_Blue_Marble%2C_AS17-148-22727.jpg/40px-The_Blue_Marble%2C_AS17-148-22727.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Blue_Marble,_AS17-148-22727.jpg)[World portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World "Portal:World")

* [Chronology of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe "Chronology of the universe")
* [Far future in fiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_future_in_fiction "Far future in fiction")
* [Far future in religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_future_in_religion "Far future in religion")
  + [Eschatology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschatology "Eschatology")
* [Formation and evolution of the Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System "Formation and evolution of the Solar System")
  + [Stability of the Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stability_of_the_Solar_System "Stability of the Solar System")
* [List of future astronomical events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_future_astronomical_events "List of future astronomical events")
* [List of future calendar events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_future_calendar_events "List of future calendar events")
* [List of radioactive nuclides by half-life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radioactive_nuclides_by_half-life "List of radioactive nuclides by half-life")
* [Location of Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Location_of_Earth "Location of Earth")
  + [History of Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Earth "History of Earth")
  + [Future of Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Earth "Future of Earth")
* [Orders of magnitude (time)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(time) "Orders of magnitude (time)")
* [Space and survival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_and_survival "Space and survival")
* [Stellar evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution "Stellar evolution")
* [Third millennium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_millennium "Third millennium")
* [Timeline of natural history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_natural_history "Timeline of natural history")
* [Timeline of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_universe "Timeline of the universe")
* [Ultimate fate of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe "Ultimate fate of the universe")

## Notes

1. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-4) [6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-5) [7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-6) [8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-7) [9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-8) [10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-9) [11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-10) [12](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-11) [13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-12) [14](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-13) [15](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-14) [16](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-15) [17](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-16) [18](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-17) [19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-prob_20-18) This represents the time by which the event will most probably have happened. It may occur randomly at any time from the present.
2. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-shortscale_103-0) Units are [short scale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scales#Short_scale "Long and short scales").
3. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-earthredgiantsun_133-0) See the 2001 paper by Rybicki, K. R. and Denis, C. However, according to the latest calculations, this happens with a very high degree of certainty.[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Rybicki2001-132)
4. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-half-life_172-0) Around 264 half-lives. Tyson et al. employ the computation with a different value for half-life.[[168]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_note-Tyson-171)
5. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-178) Manuscript was updated after publication; lifetime numbers are taken from the latest revision at [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[1707.08124](https://arxiv.org/abs/1707.08124).
6. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber_180-0) 


   10


   10

   26
   {\displaystyle 10^{10^{26}}}
   ![{\displaystyle 10^{10^{26}}}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bb0c64a684dab5a506013f1dae052f4c08f87cb9) is 1 followed by 1026 (100 septillion) zeroes.
7. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber2_181-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber2_181-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber2_181-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber2_181-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bignumber2_181-4) Although listed in years for convenience, the numbers at this point are so vast that their [digits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit "Numerical digit") would remain unchanged regardless of which conventional units they were listed in, be they [nanoseconds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanosecond "Nanosecond") or [star lifespans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution "Stellar evolution").
8. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-182) 


   10


   10

   50
   {\displaystyle 10^{10^{50}}}
   ![{\displaystyle 10^{10^{50}}}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86915ec94e1a8bbad54a000d1fc05300cba3122d) is 1 followed by 1050 (100 quindecillion) zeroes.

## References

1. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-NYT-20230502_1-0) [Overbye, Dennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Overbye "Dennis Overbye") (2 May 2023). ["Who Will Have the Last Word on the Universe? – Modern science suggests that we and all our achievements and memories are destined to vanish like a dream. Is that sad or good?"](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/02/science/end-of-universe.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230506052917/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/02/science/end-of-universe.html) from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
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4. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-4) [Adams, Fred C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); [Laughlin, Gregory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (1 April 1997). ["A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180727015521/https://cds.cern.ch/record/318436/files/9701131.pdf) (PDF). *Reviews of Modern Physics*. **69** (2): 337–372. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/9701131](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9701131). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1997RvMP...69..337A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997RvMP...69..337A). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337](https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.69.337). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [0034-6861](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6861). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [12173790](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12173790). Archived from [the original](https://cds.cern.ch/record/318436/files/9701131.pdf) (PDF) on 27 July 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
5. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Nave_5-0) Nave, C.R. ["Second Law of Thermodynamics"](http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/seclaw.html). [Georgia State University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_University "Georgia State University"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120513064248/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/seclaw.html) from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
6. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-NAT-20211013_6-0) Blackman, J. W.; Beaulieu, J. P.; Bennett, D. P.; Danielski, C.; et al. (13 October 2021). ["A Jovian analogue orbiting a white dwarf star"](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03869-6). *[Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal) "Nature (journal)")*. **598** (7880): 272–275. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[2110.07934](https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.07934). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2021Natur.598..272B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.598..272B). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1038/s41586-021-03869-6](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03869-6). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [34646001](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34646001). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [238860454](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238860454). Retrieved 14 October 2021.
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9. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-4) [6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-5) [7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-6) [8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-7) [9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-8) [10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-9) [11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-10) [12](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-11) [13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-dying_9-12) [Adams, Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); [Laughlin, Greg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects". *Reviews of Modern Physics*. **69** (2): 337–372. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/9701131](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9701131). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1997RvMP...69..337A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997RvMP...69..337A). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337](https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.69.337). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [12173790](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12173790).
10. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Komatsu_10-0) Komatsu, E.; Smith, K. M.; Dunkley, J.; Bennett, C. L.; et al. (2011). "Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Interpretation". *The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series*. **192** (2): 18. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[1001.4731](https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.4731). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2011ApJS..192...19W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJS..192...19W). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F192%2F2%2F18). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [17581520](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17581520).
11. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-linde_11-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-linde_11-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-linde_11-2) Linde, Andrei (2007). "Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant problem". *Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics*. **2007** (1): 022. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[hep-th/0611043](https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0611043). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2007JCAP...01..022L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JCAP...01..022L). [CiteSeerX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier) "CiteSeerX (identifier)") [10.1.1.266.8334](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.266.8334). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1475-7516%2F2007%2F01%2F022). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [1475-7516](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-7516). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [16984680](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16984680).
12. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-carroll_and_chen_12-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-carroll_and_chen_12-1) [Carroll, Sean M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_M._Carroll "Sean M. Carroll"); Chen, Jennifer (27 October 2004). "Spontaneous Inflation and the Origin of the Arrow of Time". [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[hep-th/0410270](https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0410270).
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15. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-15) Loutre, MF (1 April 1995). ["Greenland Ice Sheet over the next 5000 years"](https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/full-record/WOS:A1995QR15300011). *Geophysical Research Letters*. **22** (7): 783–786. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1995GeoRL..22..783L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995GeoRL..22..783L). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1029/95GL00362](https://doi.org/10.1029%2F95GL00362). Retrieved 16 February 2025.
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19. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-19) Schwaller, Fred (3 March 2025). ["Our next ice age is due in 10,000 years, but there's a catch"](https://www.dw.com/en/earths-next-ice-age-is-due-in-10000-years-but-theres-a-catch/a-71786018). *[Deutsche Welle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Welle "Deutsche Welle")*. Retrieved 11 March 2025.
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21. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-22) ["A giant star is acting strange, and astronomers are buzzing"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210108042242/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/12/betelgeuse-is-acting-strange-astronomers-are-buzzing-about-supernova/). *National Geographic*. 26 December 2019. Archived from [the original](https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/12/betelgeuse-is-acting-strange-astronomers-are-buzzing-about-supernova/) on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
22. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-betel_23-0) Sessions, Larry (29 July 2009). ["Betelgeuse will explode someday"](http://earthsky.org/brightest-stars/betelgeuse-will-explode-someday). EarthSky Communications, Inc. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210523155715/https://earthsky.org/brightest-stars/betelgeuse-will-explode-someday/) from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
23. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-24) Saio, Hideyuki; Nandal, Devesh; Meynet, Georges; Ekstöm, Sylvia (2 June 2023). ["The evolutionary stage of Betelgeuse inferred from its pulsation periods"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstad2949). *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society*. **526** (2): 2765. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[2306.00287](https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.00287). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2023MNRAS.526.2765S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023MNRAS.526.2765S). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1093/mnras/stad2949](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstad2949).
24. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Neuhäuser_et_al_2022_25-0) Neuhäuser, R.; Torres, G.; Mugrauer, M.; Neuhäuser, D. L.; et al. (July 2022). ["Colour evolution of Betelgeuse and Antares over two millennia, derived from historical records, as a new constraint on mass and age"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstac1969). *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society*. **516** (1): 693–719. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[2207.04702](https://arxiv.org/abs/2207.04702). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2022MNRAS.516..693N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022MNRAS.516..693N). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1093/mnras/stac1969](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstac1969).
25. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-26) Howell, Elizabeth (9 November 2018). ["Vega: The North Star of the Past and the Future"](https://www.space.com/21719-vega.html). *Space.com*. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
26. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-plait_27-0) [Plait, Phil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Plait "Phil Plait") (2002). [*Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax"*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Astronomy:_Misconceptions_and_Misuses_Revealed,_from_Astrology_to_the_Moon_Landing_"Hoax" "Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing \"Hoax\""). John Wiley and Sons. pp. [55](https://archive.org/details/badastronomymisc00plai_621/page/n65)–56. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-471-40976-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-40976-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-40976-2").
27. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-tropicalsahara1_28-0) Mowat, Laura (14 July 2017). ["Africa's desert to become lush green tropics as monsoons MOVE to Sahara, scientists say"](https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/828144/Climate-change-Africa-Sahel-Sahara-region-monsoon-rainfall-drought). *Daily Express*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308053332/https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/828144/Climate-change-Africa-Sahel-Sahara-region-monsoon-rainfall-drought) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
28. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-tropicalsahara2_29-0) ["Orbit: Earth's Extraordinary Journey"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180714131638/https://mymultiplesclerosis.co.uk/btbb/gilf-kebir-the-great-barrier-nick-drake-wadi-bakht/). *ExptU*. 23 December 2015. Archived from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
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77. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-78) Yorath, C. J. (2017). *Of rocks, mountains and Jasper: a visitor's guide to the geology of Jasper National Park*. Dundurn Press. p. 30. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4597-3612-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4597-3612-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4597-3612-2"). "[...] 'How long will the Rockies last?' [...] The numbers suggest that in about 50 to 60 million years the remaining mountains will be gone, and the park will be reduced to a rolling plain much like the Canadian prairies."
78. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-79) Dethier, David P.; Ouimet, W.; Bierman, P. R.; Rood, D. H.; et al. (2014). ["Basins and bedrock: Spatial variation in 10Be erosion rates and increasing relief in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA"](http://noblegas.berkeley.edu/~balcs/pubs/Dethier_2014_Geology.pdf) (PDF). *Geology*. **42** (2): 167–170. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2014Geo....42..167D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Geo....42..167D). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1130/G34922.1](https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG34922.1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181223151250/http://noblegas.berkeley.edu/~balcs/pubs/Dethier_2014_Geology.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
79. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-80) [Patzek, Tad W.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tad_Patzek "Tad Patzek") (2008). "Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?". In Pimentel, David (ed.). [*Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems: Benefits and Risks*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WNszUml_Wd4C). Springer. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4020-8653-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8653-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8653-3"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801114937/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNszUml_Wd4C) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
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81. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-kpg1_82-0) Nelson, Stephen A. ["Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction"](http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/impacts.htm). [Tulane University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulane_University "Tulane University"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170525191707/http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/impacts.htm) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
82. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-83) Lang, Kenneth R. (2003). [*The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System*](https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000lang). Cambridge University Press. p. [329](https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000lang/page/329). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-81306-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81306-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81306-8"). "[...] all the rings should collapse [...] in about 100 million years."
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94. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-95) Hoffman, Paul F. (November 1992). ["Rodinia to Gondwanaland to Pangea to Amasia: alternating kinematics of supercontinental fusion"](https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/ag/article/view/1870/2234). *Atlantic Geology*. **28** (3): 284. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4138/1870](https://doi.org/10.4138%2F1870).
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127. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-129) Shiga, David (23 April 2008). ["Solar system could go haywire before the Sun dies"](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13757-solar-system-could-go-haywire-before-the-sun-dies/). *New Scientist*.
128. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Schroder_2008_130-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Schroder_2008_130-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Schroder_2008_130-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Schroder_2008_130-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Schroder_2008_130-4) Schroder, K. P.; Smith, Robert Connon (2008). ["Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2008.13022.x). *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society*. **386** (1): 155–163. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[0801.4031](https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.4031). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2008MNRAS.386..155S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MNRAS.386..155S). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2008.13022.x). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [10073988](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10073988).
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136. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-sawala_139-0) 

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138. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-141) ["NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision"](https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/milky-way-collide.html). *NASA*. 31 May 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200430054838/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/milky-way-collide.html) from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
139. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-142) [Dowd, Maureen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maureen_Dowd "Maureen Dowd") (29 May 2012). ["Andromeda Is Coming!"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/30/opinion/dowd-andromeda-is-coming.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308163232/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/30/opinion/dowd-andromeda-is-coming.html) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2014. "[NASA's David Morrison] explained that the [Andromeda-Milky Way collision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda-Milky_Way_collision "Andromeda-Milky Way collision") would just be two great big fuzzy balls of stars and mostly empty space passing through each other harmlessly over the course of millions of years."
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154. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-:0_157-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-:0_157-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-:0_157-2) Busha, Michael T.; [Adams, Fred C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); Wechsler, Risa H.; Evrard, August E. (20 October 2003). "Future Evolution of Structure in an Accelerating Universe". *The Astrophysical Journal*. **596** (2): 713–724. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/0305211](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0305211). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1086/378043](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F378043). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [0004-637X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-637X). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [15764445](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15764445).
155. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-bluedwarf_158-0) [Adams, F. C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); Graves, G. J. M.; [Laughlin, G.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (December 2004). García-Segura, G.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Franco, J.; Yorke, H. W. (eds.). "Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets. / First Astrophysics meeting of the Observatorio Astronomico Nacional. / A meeting to celebrate Peter Bodenheimer for his outstanding contributions to Astrophysics: Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence". *Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias*. **22**: 46–49. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2004RMxAC..22...46A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004RMxAC..22...46A). See Fig. 3.
156. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-159) [Krauss, Lawrence M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss "Lawrence Krauss"); [Starkman, Glenn D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_D._Starkman "Glenn D. Starkman") (March 2000). "Life, The Universe, and Nothing: Life and Death in an Ever-Expanding Universe". *The Astrophysical Journal*. **531** (1): 22–30. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/9902189](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902189). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2000ApJ...531...22K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ApJ...531...22K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1086/308434](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F308434). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [0004-637X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-637X). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [18442980](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18442980).
157. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-160) [Adams, Fred C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); [Laughlin, Gregory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin"); Graves, Genevieve J. M. (2004). ["RED Dwarfs and the End of The Main Sequence"](http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_adams.pdf) (PDF). *Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias*. **22**: 46–49. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181223151311/http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_adams.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
158. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-loeb_2016_161-0) Loeb, Abraham; Batista, Rafael; Sloan, W. (2016). "Relative Likelihood for Life as a Function of Cosmic Time". *Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics*. **2016** (8): 040. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[1606.08448](https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.08448). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2016JCAP...08..040L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JCAP...08..040L). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/1475-7516/2016/08/040](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1475-7516%2F2016%2F08%2F040). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [118489638](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118489638).
159. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-S&T_22_162-0) "Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small". *Sky & Telescope* (22). November 1997.
160. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-163) [Adams, F. C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); Bodenheimer, P.; [Laughlin, G.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (2005). ["M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution"](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.200510440). *Astronomische Nachrichten*. **326** (10): 913–919. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2005AN....326..913A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AN....326..913A). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1002/asna.200510440](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.200510440).
161. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-strip_164-0) Tayler, Roger John (1993). *Galaxies, Structure and Evolution* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-36710-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36710-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36710-3").
162. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_ages_165-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_ages_165-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_ages_165-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_ages_165-3) [Adams, Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); [Laughlin, Greg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (1999). *The Five Ages of the Universe*. New York: The Free Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-684-85422-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85422-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85422-9").
163. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_degs_166-0) [Barrow, John D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Barrow "John D. Barrow"); [Tipler, Frank J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_J._Tipler "Frank J. Tipler") (19 May 1988). [*The Anthropic Cosmological Principle*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uSykSbXklWEC). foreword by [John A. Wheeler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Wheeler "John A. Wheeler"). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-282147-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282147-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282147-8"). [LC 87-28148](http://lccn.loc.gov/87028148). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801124357/https://books.google.com/books?id=uSykSbXklWEC) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
164. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-five_ages_pp85–87_167-0) [Adams, Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams"); [Laughlin, Greg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin") (1999). *The Five Ages of the Universe*. New York: The Free Press. pp. 85–87. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-684-85422-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85422-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85422-9").
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166. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-169) [Baez, John C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Baez "John C. Baez") (7 February 2016). ["The End of the Universe"](http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/end.html). *math.ucr.edu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090530050623/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/end.html) from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
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169. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Page_1976_173-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Page_1976_173-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Page_1976_173-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-Page_1976_173-3) Page, Don N. (1976). "Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole". *Physical Review D*. **13** (2): 198–206. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1976PhRvD..13..198P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976PhRvD..13..198P). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198](https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.13.198).
170. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-174) [Overbye, Denis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Overbye "Dennis Overbye") (16 September 2015). ["More Evidence for Coming Black Hole Collision"](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/22/science/space/more-evidence-for-coming-black-hole-collision.html). *The New York Times*.
171. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-175) L., Logan Richard (2021). ["Black holes can help us answer many long-asked questions"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210515162122/https://www.microscopy-uk.net/black-holes-can-help-us-answer-many-long-asked-questions/). *Microscopy UK – Science & Education*. Micscape. Archived from [the original](https://www.microscopy-uk.net/black-holes-can-help-us-answer-many-long-asked-questions/) on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2023. "When galaxies collide, the supermassive black holes in the central contract eventually find their way into the centre of the newly created galaxy where they are ultimately pulled together."
172. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-176) Frautschi, S. (1982). "Entropy in an expanding universe". *Science*. **217** (4560): 593–599. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1982Sci...217..593F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982Sci...217..593F). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1126/science.217.4560.593](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.217.4560.593). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [17817517](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17817517). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [27717447](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27717447). "p. 596: table 1 and section "black hole decay" and previous sentence on that page: "Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding – for instance, superclusters of galaxies – black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 1014M☉ ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10106 years for black holes of up to 1014M☉""
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174. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-179) Caplan, M. E. (7 August 2020). ["Black Dwarf Supernova in the Far Future"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa2262). *[MNRAS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MNRAS "MNRAS")*. **497** (1–6): 4357–4362. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[2008.02296](https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.02296). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2020MNRAS.497.4357C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.497.4357C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1093/mnras/staa2262](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa2262). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [221005728](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221005728).
175. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-TegmarkPUstaple_183-0) [Tegmark, Max](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark "Max Tegmark") (7 February 2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". *Scientific American*. **288** (5): 40–51. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/0302131](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302131). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2003SciAm.288e..40T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003SciAm.288e..40T). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0503-40). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [12701329](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701329).
176. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-184) [Tegmark, Max](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark "Max Tegmark") (7 February 2003). Barrow, J. D.; Davies, P. C. W.; Harper, C. L. (eds.). "Parallel Universes". *In "Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos", Honoring John Wheeler's 90th Birthday*. **288** (5): 40–51. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/0302131](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302131). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2003SciAm.288e..40T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003SciAm.288e..40T). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0503-40). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [12701329](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701329).
177. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-185) [Douglas, M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._Douglas "Michael R. Douglas") (21 March 2003). "The statistics of string / M theory vacua". *JHEP*. **0305** (46): 046. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[hep-th/0303194](https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0303194). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2003JHEP...05..046D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JHEP...05..046D). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/1126-6708/2003/05/046](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1126-6708%2F2003%2F05%2F046). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [650509](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:650509).
178. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-186) Ashok, S.; [Douglas, M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._Douglas "Michael R. Douglas") (2004). "Counting flux vacua". *JHEP*. **0401** (60): 060. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[hep-th/0307049](https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0307049). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2004JHEP...01..060A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JHEP...01..060A). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/1126-6708/2004/01/060](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1126-6708%2F2004%2F01%2F060). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [1969475](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1969475).
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219. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-227) Begtrup, G. E.; Gannett, W.; Yuzvinsky, T. D.; Crespi, V. H.; et al. (13 May 2009). ["Nanoscale Reversible Mass Transport for Archival Memory"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100622232231/http://www.physics.berkeley.edu/research/zettl/pdf/363.NanoLet.9-Begtrup.pdf) (PDF). *Nano Letters*. **9** (5): 1835–1838. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2009NanoL...9.1835B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NanoL...9.1835B). [CiteSeerX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier) "CiteSeerX (identifier)") [10.1.1.534.8855](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.534.8855). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1021/nl803800c](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl803800c). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [19400579](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19400579). Archived from [the original](http://www.physics.berkeley.edu/research/zettl/pdf/363.NanoLet.9-Begtrup.pdf) (PDF) on 22 June 2010.
220. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-228) [Abumrad, Jad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jad_Abumrad "Jad Abumrad"); [Krulwich, Robert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Krulwich "Robert Krulwich") (12 February 2010). [*Carl Sagan And Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape*](https://www.npr.org/2010/02/12/123534818/carl-sagan-and-ann-druyans-ultimate-mix-tape). *Radiolab* (Radio). NPR.
221. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-229) Korycansky, D. G.; [Laughlin, Gregory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin "Gregory P. Laughlin"); [Adams, Fred C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams") (2001). "Astronomical engineering: a strategy for modifying planetary orbits". *Astrophysics and Space Science*. **275** (4): 349–366. [arXiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) "ArXiv (identifier)"):[astro-ph/0102126](https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0102126). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2001Ap&SS.275..349K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Ap&SS.275..349K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1023/A:1002790227314](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1002790227314). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[2027.42/41972](https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F41972). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [5550304](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5550304). Astrophys.Space Sci.275:349-366, 2001.
222. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-230) Korycansky, D. G. (2004). ["Astroengineering, or how to save the Earth in only one billion years"](http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_korycansky.pdf) (PDF). *Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica*. **22**: 117–120. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2004RMxAC..22..117K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004RMxAC..22..117K). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175649/http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_korycansky.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
223. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-231) ["Date/Time Conversion Contract Language"](https://its.ny.gov/sites/default/files/documents/nys-p98-003_date_time_conversion_contract_language_1.pdf) (PDF). [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state) "New York (state)"): Office of Information Technology Services. 19 May 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210430113627/https://its.ny.gov/sites/default/files/documents/nys-p98-003_date_time_conversion_contract_language_1.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
224. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-232) Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (2014). ["Seemingly unlimited lifetime data storage in nanostructured glass"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260004721). *Phys. Rev. Lett*. **112** (3) 033901. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2014PhRvL.112c3901Z](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhRvL.112c3901Z). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.033901](https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.112.033901). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [24484138](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24484138). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [27040597](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27040597). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210802032743/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260004721_Seemingly_Unlimited_Lifetime_Data_Storage_in_Nanostructured_Glass) from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
225. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future#cite_ref-233) Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (June 2013). ["5D Data Storage by Ultrafast Laser Nanostructuring in Glass"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140906152109/http://www.orc.soton.ac.uk/fileadmin/downloads/5D_Data_Storage_by_Ultrafast_Laser_Nanostructuring_in_Glass.pdf) (PDF). *CLEO: Science and Innovations*: CTh5D–9. Archived from [the original](http://www.orc.soton.ac.uk/fileadmin/downloads/5D_Data_Storage_by_Ultrafast_Laser_Nanostructuring_in_Glass.pdf) (PDF) on 6 September 2014.

### Bibliography

* [Adams, Fred C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Adams "Fred Adams") (2008). ["Long term astrophysical processes"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jxc88RuJhgC&pg=PA33). In Bostrom, Nick; [Ćirković, Milan M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_M._Ćirković "Milan M. Ćirković") (eds.). *Global catastrophic risks*. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-857050-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-857050-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-857050-9").
* [Brownlee, Donald E.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_E._Brownlee "Donald E. Brownlee") (2010). ["Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales"](https://books.google.com/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC). In Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L. (eds.). *Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth*. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-11294-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11294-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11294-9").

| * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Time_topics "Template:Time topics") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Time_topics "Template talk:Time topics") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_topics "Special:EditPage/Template:Time topics")  [Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time "Time") | |
| --- | --- |
| Key concepts | * [Past](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past "Past") * [Present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present "Present") * [Future](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future "Future") * [Eternity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternity "Eternity") |
| [Measurement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horology "Horology") and [standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_standard "Time standard") | |  |  | | --- | --- | | [Chronometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronometry "Chronometry") | * [UTC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time "Coordinated Universal Time") * [Universal Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Time "Universal Time") * [TAI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time "International Atomic Time") * [Unit of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_time "Unit of time") * [Orders of magnitude (time)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(time) "Orders of magnitude (time)") | | [Measurement systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_measurement "System of measurement") | * [Italian six-hour clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_six-hour_clock "Italian six-hour clock") * [Thai six-hour clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_six-hour_clock "Thai six-hour clock") * [12-hour clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12-hour_clock "12-hour clock") * [24-hour clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24-hour_clock "24-hour clock") * [Relative hour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_hour "Relative hour") * [Daylight saving time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time "Daylight saving time") * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_timekeeping "Traditional Chinese timekeeping") * [Decimal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_time "Decimal time") * [Hexadecimal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal_time "Hexadecimal time") * [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time "Hindu units of time") * [Jain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_units_of_time "Jain units of time") * [Metric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_time "Metric time") * [Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_timekeeping "Roman timekeeping") * [Sidereal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_time "Sidereal time") * [Solar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time "Solar time") * [Time zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_zone "Time zone") | | [Calendars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar "Calendar") | * [Main types](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar#Systems "Calendar")   + [Solar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar "Solar calendar")   + [Lunar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar "Lunar calendar")   + [Lunisolar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar "Lunisolar calendar") * [Gregorian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar "Gregorian calendar") * [Julian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar "Julian calendar") * [Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar "Hebrew calendar") * [Islamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calendar "Islamic calendar") * [Solar Hijri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Hijri_calendar "Solar Hijri calendar") * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar") * [Hindu Panchang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_calendar "Hindu calendar") * [Maya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar "Maya calendar") * *[List](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calendars "List of calendars")* | | [Clocks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock "Clock") | * [Main types](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Types "Clock")   + [astronomical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock "Astronomical clock")     - [astrarium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium "Astrarium")   + [atomic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock "Atomic clock")     - [quantum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_clock "Quantum clock")   + [hourglass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hourglass "Hourglass")   + [marine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_chronometer "Marine chronometer")   + [sundial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundial "Sundial")   + [watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch "Watch")     - [24-hour wristwatch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24-hour_analogue_dial#Notable_24-hour_watch_brands "24-hour analogue dial")     - [mechanical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_watch "Mechanical watch")     - [stopwatch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stopwatch "Stopwatch")   + [water-based](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock "Water clock") * [Cuckoo clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo_clock "Cuckoo clock") * [Digital clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_clock "Digital clock") * [Grandfather clock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clock "Grandfather clock") * *[History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices "History of timekeeping devices")*   + *[Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_time_measurement_inventions "Timeline of time measurement inventions")* | |
| * [Chronology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology "Chronology") * [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History "History") | * [Astronomical chronology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_chronology "Astronomical chronology") * [Big History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_History "Big History") * [Calendar era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era "Calendar era") * [Deep time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_time "Deep time") * [Periodization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization "Periodization") * [Regnal year](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnal_year "Regnal year") * [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline "Timeline") |
| [Philosophy of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time "Philosophy of space and time") | * [A series and B series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_series_and_B_series "A series and B series") * [B-theory of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-theory_of_time "B-theory of time") * [Chronocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronocentrism "Chronocentrism") * [Duration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duration_(philosophy) "Duration (philosophy)") * [Endurantism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurantism "Endurantism") * [Eternal return](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternal_return "Eternal return") * [Eternalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time) "Eternalism (philosophy of time)") * [Event](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(philosophy) "Event (philosophy)") * [Moving spotlight theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_spotlight_theory_of_time "Moving spotlight theory of time") * [Perdurantism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdurantism "Perdurantism") * [Presentism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_presentism "Philosophical presentism") * [Temporal finitism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_finitism "Temporal finitism") * [Temporal parts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_parts "Temporal parts") * "[The Unreality of Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time "The Unreality of Time")" |
| * [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Time_in_religion "Category:Time in religion") * [Mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Time_in_religion_and_mythology "Template:Time in religion and mythology") | * [Ages of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages_of_Man "Ages of Man") * [Destiny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny "Destiny") * [Immortality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality "Immortality") * [Dreamtime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreaming "The Dreaming") * [Kāla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kāla "Kāla") * [Time and fate deities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_and_fate_deities "Time and fate deities")   + [Father Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Time "Father Time") * [Wheel of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_of_time "Wheel of time")   + [Kalachakra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalachakra "Kalachakra") |
| [Human experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception "Time perception") and [use of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-use_research "Time-use research") | * [Chronemics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronemics "Chronemics") * [Generation time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_time "Generation time") * [Mental chronometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_chronometry "Mental chronometry") * [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duration_(music) "Duration (music)")   + [tempo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo "Tempo")   + [time signature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_signature "Time signature") * [Rosy retrospection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection "Rosy retrospection") * [Tense–aspect–mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense–aspect–mood "Tense–aspect–mood") * [Time management](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management "Time management") * [Yesterday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesterday_(time) "Yesterday (time)") – [Today](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present "Present") – [Tomorrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrow_(time) "Tomorrow (time)") |
| Time in [science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science "Science") | |  |  | | --- | --- | | [Geology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology "Geology") | * [Geological time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale "Geologic time scale")   + [age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_(geology) "Age (geology)")   + [chron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone "Chronozone")   + [eon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eon_(geology) "Eon (geology)")   + [epoch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoch_(geology) "Epoch (geology)")   + [era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_(geology) "Era (geology)")   + [period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_period "Geological period") * [Geochronology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geochronology "Geochronology") * [Geological history of Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth "Geological history of Earth") | | [Physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_physics "Time in physics") | * [Absolute space and time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time "Absolute space and time") * [Arrow of time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time "Arrow of time") * [Chronon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronon "Chronon") * [Coordinate time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_time "Coordinate time") * [Instant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant "Instant") * [Proper time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time "Proper time") * [Spacetime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime "Spacetime") * [Theory of relativity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity "Theory of relativity") * [Time domain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_domain "Time domain") * [Time translation symmetry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_translation_symmetry "Time translation symmetry") * [Time reversal symmetry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry "T-symmetry") | | Other fields | * [Chronological dating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating "Chronological dating") * [Chronobiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronobiology "Chronobiology")   + [Circadian rhythms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm "Circadian rhythm") * [Clock reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_clock "Chemical clock") * [Glottochronology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottochronology "Glottochronology") * [Time geography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_geography "Time geography") | |
| Related | * [Leap year](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year "Leap year") * [Memory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory "Memory") * [Moment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_(unit) "Moment (unit)") * [Sabbath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath "Sabbath") * [Space](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space "Space") * [System time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time "System time") * *[Tempus fugit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempus_fugit "Tempus fugit")* * [Time capsule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_capsule "Time capsule") * [Time immemorial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_immemorial "Time immemorial") * [Time travel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_travel "Time travel") * [Time value of money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_value_of_money "Time value of money") |
| * [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Time "Category:Time") * [Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Time "commons:Category:Time") | |

| * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Millennia "Template:Millennia") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Millennia "Template talk:Millennia") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Millennia "Special:EditPage/Template:Millennia")  [Millennia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium "Millennium") | |
| --- | --- |
| [CE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era") / [AD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini "Anno Domini") | * [1st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_millennium "1st millennium") * [2nd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium "2nd millennium") * [3rd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium "3rd millennium") * [4th and later](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future) |
| [BCE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Common_Era "Before Common Era") / [BC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christ "Before Christ") | * [1st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_millennium_BC "1st millennium BC") * [2nd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC "2nd millennium BC") * [3rd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC "3rd millennium BC") * [4th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_millennium_BC "4th millennium BC") * [5th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_millennium_BC "5th millennium BC") * [6th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_millennium_BC "6th millennium BC") * [7th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_millennium_BC "7th millennium BC") * [8th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_millennium_BC "8th millennium BC") * [9th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_millennium_BC "9th millennium BC") * [10th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_millennium_BC "10th millennium BC") * [11th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_millennium_BC "11th millennium BC") * [12th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_millennium_BC "12th millennium BC") * [13th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_millennium_BC "13th millennium BC") * [14th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_millennium_BC "14th millennium BC") * [15th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_millennium_BC "15th millennium BC") * [16th and earlier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory "Timeline of prehistory") |